| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
From the Royal Children’s Hospital (Dr. Mackay), Victoria, Australia; Hospital for Sick Children (Drs. Weiss and Snead, T. Adams-Webber and D. Stephens) and Faculty of Medicine (Drs. Weiss and Snead, D. Stephens), University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Loma Linda University School of Medicine (Dr. Ashwal), CA; Montefiore Medical Center (Drs. Ballaban-Gill and Shinnar), Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York; University of California at Irvine (Dr. Baram) and Mattel Children’s Hospital, University of California at Los Angeles (Dr. Shields); Miami Children’s Hospital (Dr. Duchowny), FL; National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (Dr. Hirtz), NIH, Washington, DC; Medical College of Virginia (Dr. Pellock), Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond; and Cleveland Clinic Foundation (Dr. Wyllie), OH.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, 1080 Montreal Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55116.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top. Abstract Appendix 1: American Academy...Appendix 2: American Academy...Appendix 3: Quality Standards...Appendix 4: Child Neurology...References |
|---|
Methods: Database searches of MEDLINE from 1966 and EMBASE from 1980 and searches of reference lists of retrieved articles were performed. Inclusion criteria were the documented presence of infantile spasms and hypsarrhythmia. Outcome measures included complete cessation of spasms, resolution of hypsarrhythmia, relapse rate, developmental outcome, and presence or absence of epilepsy or an epileptiform EEG. One hundred fifty-nine articles were selected for detailed review. Recommendations were based on a four-tiered classification scheme.
Results: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is probably effective for the short-term treatment of infantile spasms, but there is insufficient evidence to recommend the optimum dosage and duration of treatment. There is insufficient evidence to determine whether oral corticosteroids are effective. Vigabatrin is possibly effective for the short-term treatment of infantile spasm and is possibly also effective for children with tuberous sclerosis. Concerns about retinal toxicity suggest that serial ophthalmologic screening is required in patients on vigabatrin; however, the data are insufficient to make recommendations regarding the frequency or type of screening. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any other treatment of infantile spasms. There is insufficient evidence to conclude that successful treatment of infantile spasms improves the long-term prognosis.
Conclusions: ACTH is probably an effective agent in the short-term treatment of infantile spasms. Vigabatrin is possibly effective.
Two large surveys were performed independently by the Child Neurology Societies in the United States and in Japan to determine the drug of choice for the treatment of infantile spasms. In the American survey, which primarily included US child neurologists, 88% of respondents used adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) as initial therapy, the most frequently used regimen was a dosage of 40 IU/day for 1 to 2 months, and the choice of drug was not influenced by etiology.7 In the Japanese survey, treatment was influenced by etiology, and the order of drug selection was pyridoxine, valproate, and then synthetic ACTH at much lower doses than used in the United States.8 In a smaller survey of pediatric neurologists in the United Kingdom, the initial choice was influenced by etiology, and vigabatrin was the most frequently used first-line agent.9
Because of these different approaches to the treatment of children with infantile spasms, a practice parameter is warranted to develop evidence-based recommendations for the treatment of this disorder but is constrained by a number of factors. First, there is a paucity of prospective studies and even fewer randomized or controlled treatment trials in this disorder. In addition, published outcome measures are poorly described, are short term, vary from study to study, and are based on small numbers of patients because of the infrequent occurrence of the disorder. Finally, the agents used, dosage regimens, and treatment duration vary from study to study. Specific clinical questions include the following:
Description of process. The OVID interface was used to search both MEDLINE (1966 to May 2002) and EMBASE (1980 to May 2002) databases simultaneously. The search term "spasms, infantile" retrieved a total of 2,616 references. A text word search was also used to identify other potentially relevant studies. Terms used included the following: infant: spasm, hypsarrhythmia, hypsarrhythmi, cryptogen: infant: spasm, jackknife seizure, nodding spasm, salaam seizure, spasmus nutans, symptomatic infant: spasm, west syndrome:, lightning attack, salaam attack and blitznicksalaamkrampfe, petit mal quadrette, massive myoclon: spasm, and minor motor epilepsy. The wildcard symbol ":" was used to truncate words, allowing retrieval of articles that used variations in word endings. The combined MEDLINE and EMBASE text word searches identified 1,175 articles. All search titles and abstracts were analyzed for content. English language articles on therapy, prognosis, and side effects were selected, including original and review articles. There were 159 articles chosen for detailed review, and individual committee members reviewed, abstracted, and classified these articles to assess the quality of evidence-based data related to study design and treatment effect.
Articles included for analysis required the following: 1) A clearly stated diagnosis of infantile spasms. 2) An EEG demonstrating hypsarrhythmia or modified hypsarrhythmia. Hypsarrhythmia is defined as very high voltage random slow waves and spikes in all cortical areas. The spikes vary from moment to moment in duration and location.10 Modified hypsarrhythmia includes variations such as hypsarrhythmia with increased synchronization, asymmetrical hypsarrhythmia, hypsarrhythmia with a consistent focus of abnormal discharge, hypsarrhythmia with episodes of attenuation, and hypsarrhythmia with little sharp wave activity or spike activity.11 Articles using a routine EEG recording were acceptable for inclusion because very few articles used video-EEG monitoring. 3) Age of 1 month to 3 years. Infantile spasms were classified as either symptomatic or cryptogenic as defined by the International League Against Epilepsy.12 The symptomatic group is characterized by "previous existence of brain damage signs (psychomotor retardation, neurologic signs, radiologic signs, or other types of seizures) or by a known etiology." The symptomatic group can be further divided into prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal groups. Prenatal causes include chromosomal abnormalities, inborn errors of metabolism, neurocutaneous syndromes, cortical malformations, and intrauterine infections. Perinatal causes include hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy and birth trauma. Postnatal causes include CNS trauma, infection, and intracranial hemorrhage.3 The smaller cryptogenic group is characterized by "a lack of previous signs of brain damage or of known etiology." Cases described as idiopathic or "doubtful" and post immunization were included in the cryptogenic group for analysis.
Outcome measures included short- and long-term measures. Short-term outcome measures were defined as 1) complete cessation of spasms, 2) resolution of hypsarrhythmia and, where documented, normalization of EEG, and 3) relapse rate. Adverse effects and mortality were documented. In studies with a mean follow-up of >2 years, long-term outcome measures were 1) nonepileptiform EEG, 2) absence of seizures, and 3) normal development. Stringent criteria were not used in the analysis of the developmental outcome data because the results of developmental assessments were often based on clinical impression, developmental screening tools, and school placement rather than standardized, age-appropriate psychometric testing. There are very limited natural history data on infantile spasms. Thus, it is impossible to accurately quantify, but at least some children do spontaneously remit, approximately in the order of 10 to 25% according to older and uncontrolled reports.13-15 Data recorded included description of the number of patients entering and completing the trial, age at onset of spasms, age at entry into the study, sex, etiology, drug dosage, duration of therapy, cointerventions, and duration of follow-up.
For the purposes of this practice parameter, we did not consider studies of children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, an epilepsy syndrome of early childhood that frequently follows infantile spasms. Studies were excluded if the patient’s age was <1 or >36 months at the time of entry into the study or if an EEG was not performed to confirm the diagnosis of hypsarrhythmia or modified hypsarrhythmia. Retrospective studies were excluded if they were single case reports or case series with fewer than four infants. Studies on long-term prognosis that were uncontrolled for treatment, letters, abstracts, and unpublished data were also excluded.
A four-tiered classification scheme for diagnostic evidence recently approved by the Quality Standards Subcommittee was utilized as part of this assessment (Appendix 1). Depending on the strength of this evidence, it was decided whether specific recommendations could be made and, if so, the strength of these recommendations (Appendix 2). Evidence pertinent to each treatment together with the committee’s evidence-based recommendations is presented.
ACTH and oral corticosteroids.
Is ACTH effective in the treatment of infantile spasms?
Evidence.
Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria for analysis. Five were randomized controlled studies, one providing class I, one providing class II, and three providing class III evidence16-20; four were prospective open-label trials providing class III and class IV evidence21-24 (table 1); and five were retrospective case series, also providing class IV evidence25-29 (table 2). Only one class II study was placebo controlled,17 and two were crossover studies using prednisone (class II)17 or vigabatrin (class III).19 Age at onset of spasms ranged from 1 week to 24 months, and age at entry into the study ranged from 1 to 34 months. All trials used video-EEG monitoring to document a treatment response. Two studies used synthetic ACTH,19,20 and one used ACTH fragments.22 ACTH dosage varied from 0.2 IU/kg up to 150 IU/m2, and duration of treatment at the highest dose ranged from 1 to 6 weeks, with total treatment time varying from 4 to 12 weeks. All studies but one involved small numbers (5 to 59) of patients, and only two were stratified at entry into cryptogenic and symptomatic groups.
|
|
There were four open-label prospective studies of ACTH treatment of infantile spasms: Two were class III cohort studies,21,23 and two others were class IV.22,24 All 5 children responded to low-dose ACTH in one class III study,21 whereas one class IV study reported a 93% response rate in 15 children treated with high-dose therapy. Relapse rates were 2021 and 36%, respectively.24 One class III study compared the efficacy of synthetic ACTH with oral corticosteroids and benzodiazepines.23 This study was stratified for symptomatic/cryptogenic etiology. In the 69 symptomatic patients treated with ACTH, 39% had cessation of spasms, and EEG normalized in 29%. Analysis of comparative efficacy between ACTH and prednisone was not possible in the cryptogenic group because the short-term responses to ACTH and to ACTH followed by prednisolone were combined into one treatment group. Use of ACTH fragments resulted in cessation of spasms in 33% of patients.22
The majority of studies on the use of ACTH in infantile spasms are retrospective. Five studies meeting selection criteria were analyzed, providing class IV evidence with numbers ranging from 25 to 166 children25-29 (see table 2). Response rates for cessation of spasms ranged from 59 to 100% and resolution of hypsarrhythmia from 57 to 97%, but relapse rates ranged from 9 to 62%.
Are oral corticosteroids effective in the treatment trials of infantile spasms?
Evidence.
Five studies were analyzed, with numbers ranging from 12 to 39 children: two randomized controlled studies providing class II and III evidence,16,17 two prospective open-label trials (one was a cohort study, the other with patients acting as their own controls) provided class III evidence,23,30 and one retrospective case series provided class IV evidence28 (table 3). Both randomized controlled trials used 2 mg/kg of prednisone for 4 to 7 weeks, and the response rate was 29 to 33%. In a class III open prospective study, 39 symptomatic and 38 cryptogenic patients who were treated with prednisolone 2 mg/kg, had cessation of spasms in 36 and 39% of cases, respectively.23 The EEG normalized in 28% of symptomatic patients and 42% of cryptogenic patients. In these three studies, the response rate using oral prednisone was not different from that which might be expected with no treatment based on limited natural history data, and in none of the studies were the effects of oral steroids compared with those of a placebo group. The class IV study reported cessation of spasms and resolution of hypsarrhythmia in 59% of children treated with 3 mg/kg/day of prednisone.28 None of the controlled trials compared differing doses of oral corticosteroids.
|
What are the side effects of ACTH and oral corticosteroids?
Evidence.
In the five randomized controlled trials, hypertension was reported in 0 to 37% of patients, 17-20 irritability in 37 to 100%,18-20 infection in 14%,18 and cerebral atrophy in 62% of patients in one study.20 ACTH was discontinued in 1 of 19 (5%) patients in one study because of side effects.19 There were no deaths. In the two studies comparing high-dose vs low-dose ACTH, hypertension18and "cerebral shrinkage"20 were more common in patients on high-dose ACTH. In the four prospective open-label studies, hypertension was reported in 7 to 40% of patients,21-24 irritability in 85 to 100%,23,24 and infection in 6%22; ACTH was discontinued in two of five (40%) patients in one study because of side effects.21 There were 5 deaths in 304 cases22,23; in one study, two of three deaths from sepsis were directly attributable to ACTH.23
Conclusions.
One class I, one class II, and five prospective class III studies demonstrate that ACTH is probably effective in the short-term treatment of infantile spasms and in the resolution of hypsarrhythmia. Time to response is usually within 2 weeks, and an "all-or-none" response has been reported in a number of studies.17,24 The data are insufficient to determine the optimum dosage and duration of therapy. One class II and several class III studies showed limited efficacy for the use of oral corticosteroids in infantile spasms (<40% resolved) that did not differ substantially from the spontaneous rate of remission based on limited natural history data. ACTH is more effective than oral corticosteroids in causing the cessation of seizures. Side effects reported for ACTH were common and included hypertension, irritability, infection, reversible cerebral shrinkage, and rarely death due to sepsis.
Recommendations.
1. ACTH is probably effective for the short-term treatment of infantile spasms and in resolution of hypsarrhythmia (level B).
2. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the optimum dosage and duration of treatment with ACTH for the treatment of infantile spasms (level U).
3. There is insufficient evidence that oral corticosteroids are effective in the treatment of infantile spasms (level U).
Vigabatrin.
Is vigabatrin effective in the treatment trials of infantile spasms?
Evidence.
Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria for analysis: one randomized placebo controlled study providing class I evidence,31 two randomized controlled studies providing class III evidence,19,32 six prospective uncontrolled open-label trials,33-38 and five retrospective case series,25,39-42 providing class IV evidence (table 4). Age at onset ranged from 1 week to 18 months, and age at treatment ranged from 2 to 28 months.
|
|
In the six class IV open-label uncontrolled prospective studies (n = 6 to 116 patients), the response rate ranged from 0 to 59% for children with symptomatic infantile spasms and from 50 to 100% for cryptogenic infantile spasms; children with cryptogenic infantile spasms had a higher response rate to vigabatrin than those with symptomatic spasms across all prospective studies.33-38
In the nine prospective studies reviewed, vigabatrin dosages ranged from 18 to 200 mg/kg/day. The numbers were not large enough to determine if the efficacy of vigabatrin in infantile spasms was dose dependent. The time from initiation of therapy to cessation of spasms ranged from 12 to 35 days. In the class I study, 20 children who initially received placebo for 5 days before crossing over to vigabatrin had a similar outcome when compared with the 20 children who received vigabatrin at the beginning of the spasms. The time to EEG response was 7 to 35 days, and 11 to 83% of children had resolution of hypsarrhythmia. The relapse rate of infantile spasm after initial control ranged from 0% in one study with seven children with tuberous sclerosis to 29%; however, it is difficult to compare these data because the period of follow-up was widely variable, ranging from 3 months to 6.5 years.
Is vigabatrin effective in the treatment of infantile spasms in children with tuberous sclerosis?
Evidence.
Seven studies (total n = 45) were identified, providing class III and class IV evidence. Only those prospective studies of children with tuberous sclerosis and infantile spasms who were evaluated under 3 years of age were included.19,32,33,35,36,38,42 The response of the infantile spasms to vigabatrin in infants with tuberous sclerosis was uniformly good, with a high percentage of responders whose spasms remitted. Overall cessation of spasms was seen in 41 of 45 (91%) of children treated with vigabatrin, with a 100% response rate seen in five studies.19,32,35,36,38
What are the side effects of vigabatrin?
Evidence.
In the three randomized controlled studies, sedation was noted in 9 to 24% of patients,19,31,32 irritability in 4 to 9%,19,31,32 and insomnia32 and hypotonia19 in 9%; vigabatrin was discontinued in 0 to 6% of patients because of side effects.19,31,32 There were two deaths unrelated to vigabatrin and one death in which the cause was not known across the three studies.19,32 In the six class IV open-label uncontrolled prospective studies, sedation was noted in 14 to 16% of patients,33,35,37 irritability in 13 to 33%,33-36 and hypotonia in 33%.34 None of the patients discontinued treatment, and there were no reported deaths in 244 patients across six studies.
The most significant side effect of vigabatrin is the development of concentric visual field defects, which has been reported in 10 to 40% of adult patients on vigabatrin treatment in uncontrolled case series.44,45 This side effect also has been recently reported in children.46,47 In one study, 6 of 12 children receiving vigabatrin had visual field defects. Visual field assessment could not be performed in 141 additional children because of age or developmental delay.43 Currently, the incidence of visual field deficits in infants under 1 year of age treated with vigabatrin is unknown. However, there is emerging evidence that abnormalities in the electroretinogram may occur in children as a result of vigabatrin therapy.48
Is vigabatrin more effective than hormonal agents in the treatment of infantile spasms?
Evidence.
Two studies that compared vigabatrin with steroids in the treatment of infantile spasms were analyzed: a randomized controlled trial providing class III evidence19 and a retrospective case series providing class IV evidence.25
Although the vigabatrin doses were similar (100 to 150 mg/kg/day), either ACTH or hydrocortisone was used in varying doses. In the class III randomized controlled trial, the efficacy, defined as total resolution of spasms at 20 days, was not significantly different (p = 0.12).19 In the class IV retrospective study, the drugs were of similar efficacy, but the outcome measure was 12 months spasm-free. In both studies, the rate of EEG improvement was superior for ACTH as compared with vigabatrin, but the relapse rate was higher for ACTH-treated children (p values not stated).25 Side effects were more common in patients treated with corticosteroids (27 to 37%) compared with 6 to 13% of patients treated with vigabatrin.
Conclusions.
Two class III randomized controlled trials and the majority of class IV studies demonstrated that vigabatrin reduced the occurrence of infantile spasms and was associated with resolution of hypsarrhythmia, but less than half of those treated responded. One small class I study showed the same trend, but the difference was not statistically significant when compared with placebo. Vigabatrin appears to be effective within 14 days of initiation of therapy. A consensus of class III and class IV studies indicated that vigabatrin reduced the occurrence of infantile spasms in the great majority of children with tuberous sclerosis. Vigabatrin is considered by the Food and Drug Administration to be "experimental and unproven" for all indications, and it is not licensed for use in the United States. The potential of vigabatrin for retinal toxicity in children receiving the drug for infantile spasms is a concern, but the magnitude of risk is unknown and therefore cannot be factored into a risk-benefit equation.
Recommendations.
1. Vigabatrin is possibly effective for the short-term treatment of infantile spasms (level C, class III and IV evidence).
2. Vigabatrin is also possibly effective for the short-term treatment of infantile spasms in the majority of children with tuberous sclerosis (level C, class III and IV evidence).
3. Serious concerns about retinal toxicity in adults suggest that serial ophthalmologic screening is required in patients on vigabatrin. However, data are insufficient to make recommendations regarding the frequency or type of screening that would be of value in reducing the prevalence of this complication in children (level U, class IV studies).
Other agents.
What other agents have been evaluated for the treatment of infantile spasms?
Valproic acid.
Two studies met the inclusion criteria for analysis; both were class IV uncontrolled prospective open-label studies.49,50 Valproate dose ranged from 25 to 100 mg/kg/day. One study reported cessation of spasms in 73% and resolution of hypsarrhythmia in 91% of 22 children at 6 months’ follow-up.50 The majority responded within 2 weeks, but 23% relapsed. Thrombocytopenia occurred in one-third of patients, requiring discontinuation of valproate in four patients. The other study reported cessation of spasms in 72% of children at 3 months’ follow-up.49
Nitrazepam.
Two class IV retrospective case series met the inclusion criteria for analysis.51,52 Dose ranged from 0.5 to 3.5 mg/kg/day. Cessation of spasms was reported in 3 of 10 (30%)51 and 13 of 24 (54%)52 of children. Resolution of hypsarrhythmia occurred in 11 of 24 (46%) and relapse in 2 of 13 (15%) of children in one study.52
Pyridoxine.
Pyridoxine has been reported to be the treatment of first choice for infantile spasms in Japan, but there are no randomized controlled trials of this drug. Two uncontrolled prospective open-label trials providing class IV evidence were analyzed.53,54 The response rate ranged from 13 to 29% in these studies. There is no evidence to suggest that the response rate of infantile spasms to pyridoxine therapy exceeds the spontaneous remission rate that would be predicted from limited natural history data.
Newer antiepileptic drugs and novel therapies.
Zonisamide,55 IV immunoglobulin (IVIG),56 liposteroid,57 the ketogenic diet,58 thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH),59 and topiramate60,61 all have been administered for the treatment of infantile spasms. All except one class III study57 provided class IV evidence, either in small uncontrolled prospective open-label studies or in retrospective case series.
Combination therapies.
Two small uncontrolled prospective open-label studies used a combination of ACTH and vigabatrin62 and hydrocortisone and valproate,63 providing class IV evidence. A short-term (1-week) response to ACTH plus vigabatrin was seen in all nine patients, with one child relapsing after 9 months. Cessation of spasms was seen in 77% of 94 children treated with sodium valproate and hydrocortisone within 2 weeks; 81% of 59 followed to at least age 2 years were seizure-free.
Conclusions.
There are insufficient or inadequate data to determine whether valproic acid, nitrazepam, pyridoxine, zonisamide, topiramate, novel therapies (IVIG, liposteroid, ketogenic diet, TRH) or combination therapies are effective in the treatment of infantile spasms.
Recommendations.
1. There is insufficient evidence to recommend other treatments (valproic acid, benzodiazepines, pyridoxine, newer antiepileptic drugs, or other or novel therapies) for the treatment of infantile spasms (level U, class III and IV evidence).
Long-term outcome. Natural history studies. The only available information on the natural history of infantile spasms comes from an evaluation of the pre-ACTH literature, but comparison of treatment studies to natural history controls is constrained by a number of factors. Interpretation of natural history outcomes in infantile spasms that were stratified into cryptogenic and symptomatic patients proved difficult because of limited diagnostic testing in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in regard to the neuroimaging techniques used at that time. In addition, there were inconsistencies in the literature concerning use of the terms "cryptogenic" and "symptomatic," as previously reviewed.1,12,64 Also, inclusion criteria differed across studies, and assessment of cognitive outcome was based on qualitative assessments including school placement rather than on formal psychometric testing. With these caveats, it is instructive to examine outcome studies of children with infantile spasms in the presteroid era.
Gibbs et al.10 in 1954 reported long-term follow-up in 103 survivors over 3 years of age from an original cohort of 237 patients with infantile spasms. Detailed clinical and EEG data were available in 69 children. This cohort can be considered untreated as none received steroids and all drugs used at that time are known to be ineffective against infantile spasms. At age 5 or older, 11% of the children still had infantile spasms, 45% had other seizure types, and 55% were seizure-free. Hypsarrhythmia persisted in 31%, focal EEG abnormalities were noted in 52%, and the EEG was normal in 17%. Only 13% of children over 1 year of age had normal intellectual development, but the method of assessment was not stated and there was no stratification for cryptogenic and symptomatic groups. Mortality was 11% before age 2, but the cause of death was not given.
There also are reports of early, spontaneous remission of infantile spasms.14,65 One retrospective study reported spontaneous remission in 11% of 44 patients treated with metharbital or phenytoin, but not steroids, within 6 months of the onset of spasms and in 25% by 12 months of onset.14 However, it was not stated what percentage of children in this group developed other seizure types. This is an important omission, given the fact that approximately 20% of children with infantile spasms develop complex conditions such as the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. The developmental outcome of children in this group was poor, with only 9% being defined as normal. This outcome was not significantly different when compared with a separate cohort treated with either low-dose ACTH or prednisone.66
What is the effect of short-term treatment of infantile spasms on long-term outcome?
Evidence.
Seven studies provided class III and IV evidence for the long-term outcome of infantile spasms. None was randomized or controlled, five were prospective open-label studies,23,34,38,63,66 and two were retrospective case series67,68 (table 5).
|
In the second prospective class III study, follow-up beyond 6 years was reported in 102 children from an original cohort of 121 cryptogenic cases.23 Fifty percent of ACTH-treated patients were developmentally normal, 62% were seizure-free, and 39% had a normal EEG. When ACTH was compared with other therapies such as oral steroids, benzodiazepines, or conventional anticonvulsants, there was a significant difference in favor of ACTH for psychometric development and achieving a seizure-free state (p < 0.05). An improved neurodevelopmental outcome also was associated with early commencement of therapy of <1 month.
One retrospective class IV study compared outcome in children treated with ACTH, vitamin B6, and sodium valproate. Twenty-one percent of ACTHtreated and 57% of B6-responsive patients had normal cognitive outcome. Fifty-six percent of ACTH-treated and 86% of B6-responsive patients were seizure-free. None of the valproate-treated patients had normal IQ, but all were seizure-free.67 As previously observed in other studies, cryptogenic patients had a better outcome. In contrast, outcome was uniformly poor in another study comparing ACTH and valproate; only 8% of patients had an IQ over 70, and 26% were seizure-free with no significant difference between cryptogenic and symptomatic or ACTH- and valproate-treated patients. Delay in initiation of treatment had no influence on long-term outcome.68
Two prospective open-label class IV studies reporting long-term outcome in infants treated with vigabatrin in addition to other medications were identified.34,38 In one study, 17% of children were normal or slightly developmentally delayed, and 72% were seizure-free for at least 1 year.34 In the other study, 36% of children were seizure-free and developmentally normal. Nine (90%) of cryptogenic patients had a good developmental outcome compared with one (3%) symptomatic patient after follow-up from 10 months to 3.5 years.38
These studies support that a cryptogenic etiology of infantile spasms is associated with a better long-term outcome. Other factors independent of treatment reported to be associated with a good prognosis include normal development prior to onset of spasms, with no prior neurologic deficit and absence of other seizure types in association with spasms.23,66
Conclusions.
The evidence is conflicting and limited to class III and IV that treatment of infantile spasms with agents including ACTH, oral corticosteroids, vigabatrin, valproic acid, and pyridoxine improves the long-term prognosis for cognitive outcome or decreases the later incidence of epilepsy.
Recommendations.
1. The data are insufficient to make any recommendations regarding the use of ACTH, corticosteroids, vigabatrin, valproic acid, and pyridoxine to improve the long-term outcomes (seizure freedom and normal development) of children with infantile spasms (level U, class III and IV evidence).
2. The data are insufficient to conclude that early initiation of treatment should be used to improve the long-term outcome of children with infantile spasms (level U, class III and IV evidence).
Future research
Disclaimer. This statement is provided as an educational service of the American Academy of Neurology (AAN). It is based on an assessment of current scientific and clinical information. It is not intended to include all possible proper methods of care for a particular neurologic problem or all legitimate criteria for choosing to use a specific procedure. Neither is it intended to exclude any reasonable alternative methodologies. The AAN recognizes that specific patient care decisions are the prerogative of the patient and the physician caring for the patient, based on all of the circumstances involved.
|
Appendix 1: American Academy of Neurology evidence classification scheme for a therapeutic article |
|---|
|
Top.AbstractAppendix 1: American Academy...Appendix 2: American Academy...Appendix 3: Quality Standards...Appendix 4: Child Neurology...References |
|---|
|
|
Appendix 2: American Academy of Neurology system for translation of evidence to recommendations |
|---|
|
Top.AbstractAppendix 1: American Academy...Appendix 2: American Academy...Appendix 3: Quality Standards...Appendix 4: Child Neurology...References |
|---|
|
|
Appendix 3: Quality Standards Subcommittee Members |
|---|
|
Top.AbstractAppendix 1: American Academy...Appendix 2: American Academy...Appendix 3: Quality Standards...Appendix 4: Child Neurology...References |
|---|
|
Appendix 4: Child Neurology Society Practice Committee |
|---|
|
Top.AbstractAppendix 1: American Academy...Appendix 2: American Academy...Appendix 3: Quality Standards...Appendix 4: Child Neurology...References |
|---|
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
Received September 3, 2003. Accepted in final form March 17, 2004.
Approved by the Quality Standards Subcommittee on July 26, 2003. Approved by the AAN Practice Committee on November 16, 2003. Approved by the AAN Board of Directors in January, 2004. This practice parameter has been endorsed by the American Epilepsy Society.
Dr. Mackay has received honoraria from GlaxoSmithKline, and Janssen Cilag. Dr. Mackay has no equity, stock, or any other ownership interests in these companies. Dr. Pellock has received grants/research support in excess of $10,000 and is a paid consultant for Abbott Laboratories, Aventis, Carter Wallace (MedPointe), Elan Pharmaceuticals, GlaxoSmithKline, Ortho McNeil/Johnson & Johnson, and UCB Pharmaceuticals. Dr. Shinnar has received grants/research support from Abbott Laboratories, Elan Pharmaceuticals, and Xcel Pharmaceuticals. He is a paid consultant for Abbott Laboratories, Cephalon, Inc., Elan Pharmaceuticals, Ovation, Pfizer Laboratories, and Xcel Pharmaceuticals. He also has received honoraria from Abbott Laboratories, Cephalon, Inc., Elan Pharmaceuticals, Pfizer Inc., the R.W. Johnson Pharmaceutical Research Institute, UCB Pharmaceuticals, Inc., and Xcel Pharmaceuticals. Dr. Shinnar has no equity, stock, or any other ownership interest in any of these companies. Dr. Shields participated in a study of vigabatrin that was partially supported by an unrestricted grant from Aventis.
|
References |
|---|
|
Top.AbstractAppendix 1: American Academy...Appendix 2: American Academy...Appendix 3: Quality Standards...Appendix 4: Child Neurology...References |
|---|
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  M. A. Mikati, D. El Banna, D. Sinno, and S. Mroueh RESPONSE OF INFANTILE SPASMS TO LEVETIRACETAM Neurology, February 12, 2008; 70(7): 574 - 575. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. Partikian and W. G. Mitchell Major Adverse Events Associated With Treatment of Infantile Spasms J Child Neurol, December 1, 2007; 22(12): 1360 - 1366. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Tsuji, A. Okumura, H. Ozawa, M. Ito, and K. Watanabe Current Treatment of West Syndrome in Japan J Child Neurol, May 1, 2007; 22(5): 560 - 564. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. L. Bonkowsky, F. M. Filloux, and C. L. Byington Herpes Simplex Virus Central Nervous System Relapse During Treatment of Infantile Spasms With Corticotropin Pediatrics, May 1, 2006; 117(5): e1045 - e1048. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. M. Wild, C. R. Robson, A. L. Jones, I. A. Cunliffe, and P. E. M. Smith Detecting vigabatrin toxicity by imaging of the retinal nerve fiber layer. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. |
